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International Law and Diplomacy on the Cyprus Question
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Πρόλογος: O'Keefe R
The book “International Law and Diplomacy on the Cyprus Question” deals with the Cyprus problem after the Turkish intervention of 1974, which is a matter of international law.
Although Turkey’s intervention has been the subject of much comment, a fresh study has been warranted. This is so, because this book takes advantage of information not available to many of the earlier commentators. The monograph is distinctive in that it ranges beyond the question whether the intervention was lawful to consider the legal and political consequences, which flowed from it, and looks to the future exploring afresh prospects for a just and viable settlement to the Cyprus problem.
It is noteworthy that the book is broad enough to comprise analysis of various branches of the academic fields of International Law and Politics such as:
• the International Law of Armed Conflict and the Use of Force
• International Organizations
• the Law of Treaties
• Statehood
• Human Rights
• International Law Theory
• Conflict Resolution
• Foreign Policy
• Constitutional Theory
The book also includes Appendices in which they are included a recording made for the Oxford Colonial Records Project in Oxford on the 23rd/4/1971 and written Opinion of Prof. Sir Eli Lauterpacht (as he then was to the Cyprus Government).
The aim of the book is: to examine from the International Law viewpoint the 1974 Turkish Intervention of Cyprus; actually, whether there are any grounds upon which Turkey may rely in order to establish the legality of intervention, and to explore the legal and political consequences of the intervention; in this way, the book is forward-looking, as prospects for a future settlement of the Cyprus Issue are analyzed in the light of Public International Law, International Politics, and Constitutional Theory.
The book is addressed to lawyers dealing with international law and all scientific researchers on the Cyprus issue.
FOREWORDΣελ. V
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSΣελ. XI
INTRODUCTIONΣελ. 1
PART I
ORIGINS
CHAPTER I
DIPLOMATIC CONTEXT TO THE CYPRUS QUESTION
1. The period up to 1960Σελ. 5
1.1. Brief Historical backgroundΣελ. 5
1.2. Legal Questions arising out of the British OccupationΣελ. 9
1.3. British constitutional proposals for CyprusΣελ. 11
1.4. The Structure and legal peculiarities of the ConstitutionΣελ. 18
2. Inter-communal Conflict analysisΣελ. 24
2.1. The Roots of Political Partition in CyprusΣελ. 24
2.2. The external factors of Political PartitionΣελ. 26
3. Foreign involvement 1960-1974: U.S. Foreign Policy on CyprusΣελ. 33
3.1. U.S. Policy in the Colonial Period of the Cyprus QuestionΣελ. 33
3.2. The independent Republic of Cyprus and the United StatesΣελ. 35
3.3. The Acheson PlanΣελ. 36
3.4. The events leading to 1974 and the U.S. roleΣελ. 37
CHAPTER II
THE TURKISH MILITARY INTERVENTION OF CYPRUS: THE ARGUMENT FROM THE TREATY OF GUARANTEE
1. Turkish justifications for the intervention and claims regarding the treatyΣελ. 41
2. Treaty of Guarantee and International LawΣελ. 43
2.1. Theories on the Legality of Military Intervention by Treaty RightΣελ. 43
2.2. Arguments for the Legality of Intervention envisaged by TrearyΣελ. 46
(i) Legitimate limitation of a State’s sovereigntyΣελ. 46
(ii) Volenti non fit injuriaΣελ. 47
(iii) Pacta sunt servandaΣελ. 47
2.3. Arguments against the legality of Intervention provided for by Treaty rightΣελ. 48
(i) General Principles of LawΣελ. 48
(ii) Treaties reached under Duress or Inequitable TreatiesΣελ. 52
(iii) Sovereign equalityΣελ. 53
3. Did the Treaty of Guarantee purport to authorize military action?Σελ. 54
4. Criteria set by the Guarantee Treaty and the conduct of TurkeyΣελ. 59
5. The subsequent actions of TurkeyΣελ. 61
6. Stance taken by the International CommunityΣελ. 63
7. ConclusionΣελ. 64
CHAPTER III
INTERNATIONAL LAW AND POLITICAL THEORY ON HUMANITARIAN MILITARY INTERVENTION
1. Historical Evidence of Humanitarian InterventionsΣελ. 67
2. State PracticeΣελ. 69
2.1. Pre-Charter Unilateral Humanitarian InterventionsΣελ. 69
(i) Intervention of Great Britain, France and Russia in aid of Greek RevolutionariesΣελ. 69
(ii) French occupation of Syria, 1860-1Σελ. 71
(iii) United States Intervention in Cuba, 1898Σελ. 72
2.2. Post-Charter Unilateral Humanitarian InterventionsΣελ. 73
(i) Belgian and US intervention in the Congo, 1964.Σελ. 73
(ii) Indian Invasion of Bangladesh, 1971.Σελ. 74
(iii) Tanzanian Intervention in Uganda, 1978-9.Σελ. 75
(iv) Assessment of State practiceΣελ. 76
2.3. Post-Charter UN Humanitarian InterventionsΣελ. 77
(i) Iraq, 1991Σελ. 78
(ii) Liberia, 1990Σελ. 78
(iii) Kosovo, 1999Σελ. 79
3. Legal and Political Theory on Humanitarian InterventionΣελ. 79
3.1. Sovereignty v. Human RightsΣελ. 80
3.2. Just War (Bellum Justum)Σελ. 82
(i) War is not in conflict with the Law of NatureΣελ. 82
(ii) Biblical texts arguments that war is compatible with the law of the GospelΣελ. 82
3.3. War as punishmentΣελ. 83
3.4. War in the name of the oppressedΣελ. 84
4. Criteria and Conclusions on the Turkish InterventionΣελ. 84
PART II
CONSEQUENCES OF THE INTERVENTION
CHAPTER IV
THE TURKISH FEDERATED STATE AND THE “TRNC”
1. Doctrinal considerationsΣελ. 89
1.1. Jus Gentium and PositivismΣελ. 89
1.2. The Constitutive theoryΣελ. 90
1.3. The declaratory theoryΣελ. 91
2. States created as a result of illegal use of force and the “TRNC”Σελ. 92
3. Classic Criteria for Statehood and the “TRNC”Σελ. 98
3.1. Defined TerritoryΣελ. 98
3.2. Permanent PopulationΣελ. 99
3.3. GovernmentΣελ. 100
3.4. IndependenceΣελ. 101
4. Self-determination and the “TRNC”Σελ. 102
4.1. Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot arguments on Self-DeterminationΣελ. 105
5. Unilateral secession, self-determination and the "TRNC"Σελ. 112
6. International community reaction to the “TRNC” Unilateral Declaration of IndependenceΣελ. 119
7. ConclusionsΣελ. 120
CHAPTER V
HUMAN RIGHTS
1. Loizidou CaseΣελ. 123
2.The Case Cyprus v. TurkeyΣελ. 124
PART III
THE FUTURE-THOUGHTS ON A SETTLEMENT
CHAPTER VI
THE UNITED NATIONS AND THE CYPRUS PROBLEM
1. The period before IndependenceΣελ. 133
2. The period after the inter-communal fighting until 1974Σελ. 135
3. The period from the Turkish intervention 1974 to the present dayΣελ. 141
4. Evaluation of U.N. Political Organs’ role in International Dispute SettlementΣελ. 150
CHAPTER VII
FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS LAW
1. Turkish promotion of federationΣελ. 153
2. The Concept of FederalismΣελ. 155
3. Federal State for Cyprus: A Constitutional Law perspectiveΣελ. 156
3.1. Classical Greek federal consitutionsΣελ. 159
(i) The Nature of a Greek Federal StateΣελ. 159
(ii) The Aetolian ConfederacyΣελ. 164
(iii) The Achaean ConfederacyΣελ. 166
3.2. Modern federal governmentΣελ. 169
4. Federation and Human RightsΣελ. 179
5. European Union involvement in the settlement of the Cyprus IssueΣελ. 183
6. The principles pacta sunt servanda and rebus sic stantibusΣελ. 187
CHAPTER VIII
SUGGESTED PROPOSAL AND STRATEGIC PARAMETRES
1. Suggested SolutionΣελ. 195
2. Human Rights in Foreign PolicyΣελ. 199
3. Strategic ConsiderationsΣελ. 200
4. EpilogueΣελ. 203
CHAPTER IX
SECURITY POLICIES ON THE CYPRUS PROBLEM: INTERNATIONAL LAW AND STRATEGIC PARAMETRESΣελ. 205
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYΣελ. 215
APPENDIX I - RHODES HOUSE LIBRARY OXFORDΣελ. 229
APPENDIX II - Written Opinion of Professor Sir Eli Lauterpacht to the Cyprus Government
The book “International Law and Diplomacy on the Cyprus Question” deals with the Cyprus problem after the Turkish intervention of 1974, which is a matter of international law.
Although Turkey’s intervention has been the subject of much comment, a fresh study has been warranted. This is so, because this book takes advantage of information not available to many of the earlier commentators. The monograph is distinctive in that it ranges beyond the question whether the intervention was lawful to consider the legal and political consequences, which flowed from it, and looks to the future exploring afresh prospects for a just and viable settlement to the Cyprus problem.
It is noteworthy that the book is broad enough to comprise analysis of various branches of the academic fields of International Law and Politics such as:
• the International Law of Armed Conflict and the Use of Force
• International Organizations
• the Law of Treaties
• Statehood
• Human Rights
• International Law Theory
• Conflict Resolution
• Foreign Policy
• Constitutional Theory
The book also includes Appendices in which they are included a recording made for the Oxford Colonial Records Project in Oxford on the 23rd/4/1971 and written Opinion of Prof. Sir Eli Lauterpacht (as he then was to the Cyprus Government).
The aim of the book is: to examine from the International Law viewpoint the 1974 Turkish Intervention of Cyprus; actually, whether there are any grounds upon which Turkey may rely in order to establish the legality of intervention, and to explore the legal and political consequences of the intervention; in this way, the book is forward-looking, as prospects for a future settlement of the Cyprus Issue are analyzed in the light of Public International Law, International Politics, and Constitutional Theory.
The book is addressed to lawyers dealing with international law and all scientific researchers on the Cyprus issue.
FOREWORDΣελ. V
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSΣελ. XI
INTRODUCTIONΣελ. 1
PART I
ORIGINS
CHAPTER I
DIPLOMATIC CONTEXT TO THE CYPRUS QUESTION
1. The period up to 1960Σελ. 5
1.1. Brief Historical backgroundΣελ. 5
1.2. Legal Questions arising out of the British OccupationΣελ. 9
1.3. British constitutional proposals for CyprusΣελ. 11
1.4. The Structure and legal peculiarities of the ConstitutionΣελ. 18
2. Inter-communal Conflict analysisΣελ. 24
2.1. The Roots of Political Partition in CyprusΣελ. 24
2.2. The external factors of Political PartitionΣελ. 26
3. Foreign involvement 1960-1974: U.S. Foreign Policy on CyprusΣελ. 33
3.1. U.S. Policy in the Colonial Period of the Cyprus QuestionΣελ. 33
3.2. The independent Republic of Cyprus and the United StatesΣελ. 35
3.3. The Acheson PlanΣελ. 36
3.4. The events leading to 1974 and the U.S. roleΣελ. 37
CHAPTER II
THE TURKISH MILITARY INTERVENTION OF CYPRUS: THE ARGUMENT FROM THE TREATY OF GUARANTEE
1. Turkish justifications for the intervention and claims regarding the treatyΣελ. 41
2. Treaty of Guarantee and International LawΣελ. 43
2.1. Theories on the Legality of Military Intervention by Treaty RightΣελ. 43
2.2. Arguments for the Legality of Intervention envisaged by TrearyΣελ. 46
(i) Legitimate limitation of a State’s sovereigntyΣελ. 46
(ii) Volenti non fit injuriaΣελ. 47
(iii) Pacta sunt servandaΣελ. 47
2.3. Arguments against the legality of Intervention provided for by Treaty rightΣελ. 48
(i) General Principles of LawΣελ. 48
(ii) Treaties reached under Duress or Inequitable TreatiesΣελ. 52
(iii) Sovereign equalityΣελ. 53
3. Did the Treaty of Guarantee purport to authorize military action?Σελ. 54
4. Criteria set by the Guarantee Treaty and the conduct of TurkeyΣελ. 59
5. The subsequent actions of TurkeyΣελ. 61
6. Stance taken by the International CommunityΣελ. 63
7. ConclusionΣελ. 64
CHAPTER III
INTERNATIONAL LAW AND POLITICAL THEORY ON HUMANITARIAN MILITARY INTERVENTION
1. Historical Evidence of Humanitarian InterventionsΣελ. 67
2. State PracticeΣελ. 69
2.1. Pre-Charter Unilateral Humanitarian InterventionsΣελ. 69
(i) Intervention of Great Britain, France and Russia in aid of Greek RevolutionariesΣελ. 69
(ii) French occupation of Syria, 1860-1Σελ. 71
(iii) United States Intervention in Cuba, 1898Σελ. 72
2.2. Post-Charter Unilateral Humanitarian InterventionsΣελ. 73
(i) Belgian and US intervention in the Congo, 1964.Σελ. 73
(ii) Indian Invasion of Bangladesh, 1971.Σελ. 74
(iii) Tanzanian Intervention in Uganda, 1978-9.Σελ. 75
(iv) Assessment of State practiceΣελ. 76
2.3. Post-Charter UN Humanitarian InterventionsΣελ. 77
(i) Iraq, 1991Σελ. 78
(ii) Liberia, 1990Σελ. 78
(iii) Kosovo, 1999Σελ. 79
3. Legal and Political Theory on Humanitarian InterventionΣελ. 79
3.1. Sovereignty v. Human RightsΣελ. 80
3.2. Just War (Bellum Justum)Σελ. 82
(i) War is not in conflict with the Law of NatureΣελ. 82
(ii) Biblical texts arguments that war is compatible with the law of the GospelΣελ. 82
3.3. War as punishmentΣελ. 83
3.4. War in the name of the oppressedΣελ. 84
4. Criteria and Conclusions on the Turkish InterventionΣελ. 84
PART II
CONSEQUENCES OF THE INTERVENTION
CHAPTER IV
THE TURKISH FEDERATED STATE AND THE “TRNC”
1. Doctrinal considerationsΣελ. 89
1.1. Jus Gentium and PositivismΣελ. 89
1.2. The Constitutive theoryΣελ. 90
1.3. The declaratory theoryΣελ. 91
2. States created as a result of illegal use of force and the “TRNC”Σελ. 92
3. Classic Criteria for Statehood and the “TRNC”Σελ. 98
3.1. Defined TerritoryΣελ. 98
3.2. Permanent PopulationΣελ. 99
3.3. GovernmentΣελ. 100
3.4. IndependenceΣελ. 101
4. Self-determination and the “TRNC”Σελ. 102
4.1. Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot arguments on Self-DeterminationΣελ. 105
5. Unilateral secession, self-determination and the "TRNC"Σελ. 112
6. International community reaction to the “TRNC” Unilateral Declaration of IndependenceΣελ. 119
7. ConclusionsΣελ. 120
CHAPTER V
HUMAN RIGHTS
1. Loizidou CaseΣελ. 123
2.The Case Cyprus v. TurkeyΣελ. 124
PART III
THE FUTURE-THOUGHTS ON A SETTLEMENT
CHAPTER VI
THE UNITED NATIONS AND THE CYPRUS PROBLEM
1. The period before IndependenceΣελ. 133
2. The period after the inter-communal fighting until 1974Σελ. 135
3. The period from the Turkish intervention 1974 to the present dayΣελ. 141
4. Evaluation of U.N. Political Organs’ role in International Dispute SettlementΣελ. 150
CHAPTER VII
FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS LAW
1. Turkish promotion of federationΣελ. 153
2. The Concept of FederalismΣελ. 155
3. Federal State for Cyprus: A Constitutional Law perspectiveΣελ. 156
3.1. Classical Greek federal consitutionsΣελ. 159
(i) The Nature of a Greek Federal StateΣελ. 159
(ii) The Aetolian ConfederacyΣελ. 164
(iii) The Achaean ConfederacyΣελ. 166
3.2. Modern federal governmentΣελ. 169
4. Federation and Human RightsΣελ. 179
5. European Union involvement in the settlement of the Cyprus IssueΣελ. 183
6. The principles pacta sunt servanda and rebus sic stantibusΣελ. 187
CHAPTER VIII
SUGGESTED PROPOSAL AND STRATEGIC PARAMETRES
1. Suggested SolutionΣελ. 195
2. Human Rights in Foreign PolicyΣελ. 199
3. Strategic ConsiderationsΣελ. 200
4. EpilogueΣελ. 203
CHAPTER IX
SECURITY POLICIES ON THE CYPRUS PROBLEM: INTERNATIONAL LAW AND STRATEGIC PARAMETRESΣελ. 205
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYΣελ. 215
APPENDIX I - RHODES HOUSE LIBRARY OXFORDΣελ. 229
APPENDIX II - Written Opinion of Professor Sir Eli Lauterpacht to the Cyprus Government
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